We conducted a comprehensive interview with Prof. Dr. Alparslan Açıkgenç, a faculty member at the Üsküdar Üniversitesi Department of Philosophy, who has carried out important studies in the field of Islamic philosophy in the USA and our country, about his academic life, works, and publications. Prof. Dr. Alparslan Açıkgenç, stating that the relationship between philosophy and culture is among his works, said, “The environment of philosophy is culture. Every culture has a unique philosophical activity. Every philosophy bears the traces of the environment in which it was formed. Philosophy, however, is by its very nature a universal human activity. The intersection of philosophy and culture is language. The area where philosophy and culture diverge is logic. It is philosophy that systematizes the worldview in the cultural environment,” he said.
Could you tell us a little about yourself?
I was born in 1952 in the Şenkaya district of Erzurum. I graduated from Ankara University Faculty of Theology in 1974. I went to America for my doctorate after winning a scholarship from the Ministry of National Education. I completed my Master's degree in Ancient Greek Philosophy at the University of Wisconsin (Milwaukee) in 1978. I received my doctorate from the University of Chicago in 1983 with a thesis comparing the ontologies of Sadra and Heidegger.
After returning to Turkey, I started lecturing as a faculty member in the Philosophy Department at Middle East Technical University. I became an associate professor in 1988 and a professor in 1994. After serving for a short time at Gaziosmanpaşa University, I lectured at the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization in Malaysia between 1994 and 1999.
From 1999 onwards, I served as Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Fatih University and as Vice Rector between 2006 and 2010. As of October 2010, I started working as a faculty member in the Philosophy Department at Yıldız Technical University and also served as the Director of the Institute of Social Sciences before retiring in 2015.
Since then, I have been carrying out my academic studies by lecturing at various universities and Üsküdar Üniversitesi. I have more than 200 articles published in scientific journals in English and Turkish, as well as papers presented and published at academic conferences. In addition to my book “Philosophy of Knowledge,” which has been reprinted for the 8th time by İnsan Yayınları, I have six other published books.
We know that you completed your undergraduate education, which began at Ankara University Faculty of Theology, with philosophy history in your master's and doctoral studies. What was the reason for you to turn to this field?
I had an interest in abstract sciences since my high school years. I found what I was looking for at Ankara University Faculty of Theology. During the years I studied Theology, Turkey's best philosophy professors taught our classes, and at that time there was a philosophy history department in the 3rd year, and I chose this department to continue my studies. My professors, the late Hamdi Ragıp Atademir, Hilmi Ziya Ülken, and Necati Öner, influenced me greatly. Their way of explaining philosophy was very captivating, and they could easily convey the understanding of the most abstract concepts. In this way, my interest in philosophy increased even more. When the Ministry of National Education also offered us an overseas doctoral scholarship in philosophy history, I took the exams and qualified for it, completing my doctorate at the University of Chicago in America. With my appointment to Middle East Technical University, I started working there.
You have many articles, books, and papers published in international peer-reviewed journals. Could you share these works with us?
My published books are:
- Philosophy of Knowledge: From Knowledge, Science to System Philosophy in the Islamic Context (Istanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 1992, 8th edition 2020).
- Being and Existence in Sadra and Heidegger: A Comparative Ontology (Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization, 1993). Translated into Persian.
- Islamization of Knowledge as Concept and Process (Istanbul: Nesil Yayınları, 1998);
- Scientific Thought and its Burdens (Istanbul: Fatih University Publications, 2000).
- Knowledge and Science in Islamic Civilization (Istanbul: İSAM, 2006). This work has been translated into Bosnian, Bulgarian, and Albanian.
- Islamic Scientific Tradition in History (Kuala Lumpur: IKIM, 2014). This book received the science book of the year award in Malaysia in 2014.
- Islamic Thought and Education in the Ottoman Period (Saarbrücken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2017).
The topics covered in these books generally focus on knowledge, our cognitive abilities, and our knowledge system, as well as the philosophy of science. My book Islamic Scientific Tradition in History is the application to Islamic science history of the scientific process theory I developed after years of work. It covers how the scientific process originated and developed in Islamic civilization, from the early years of Islam up to the 20th century. For this purpose, a bird's-eye view of Islamic science history has been written, utilizing both scientific epistemology and the historical epistemology approaches he developed. Moving from these historical developments, I am currently working on the part of this work, which will be published almost as its second volume, addressing the future direction of the Islamic scientific tradition.
Could you tell us about your work in the field of philosophy?
Scientific tradition is an accumulation formed by long-term scientific endeavors. Since it is not a random set of knowledge, this accumulation has important epistemological characteristics. The most important of these is that such a tradition arises through a scientific process. The scientific process develops within a certain civilization, reflecting that civilization's dominant worldview, and at certain points, it leads to the birth of sciences, and activities in these sciences, in turn, lead to the emergence of the scientific tradition. The situation is similar in Islamic civilization; first, the dominant worldview of this civilization was strengthened conceptually and structurally, thus creating the mental foundation to support scientific activities. On this foundation, sciences such as kalam or philosophy, exegesis, history, hadith, linguistics, and law first emerged, followed by the development of other sciences like physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. This accumulation, after a process of about 400 years, led to the birth of the scientific tradition in Islam around the 5th AH/11th CE century. My studies have sought to address how this process functions epistemologically.
Furthermore, as Philosophy of Knowledge, I am undertaking a philosophical journey, as outlined in “From Knowledge, Science to System Philosophy in the Islamic Context.” My first academic journey is an attempt to introduce the concept of knowledge in a general sense and then apply it to the Islamic context. The general perception and mode of perception of knowledge in Islamic civilization, especially in its main sources, are examined from the perspective of the Quran and hadiths. Thirdly, it is the application of the views developed in previous discussions to a topic addressed in the Quran: “the existence of Allah.”
It can be argued that the Quran develops its proofs in three stages: First is the subjective step where a person is warned and prepared to overcome their prejudices. In this context, an individual is addressed with an emotional state, so they can be prepared for the idea. The second is called the objective step, which points to Allah's “signs” in the universe. In this step, proofs used for the existence of Allah, known in philosophy as the argument from design and perfection, are introduced. If the individual is ready, they move to the third step, defined here as the “objectively subjective” step. Here, the Quran introduces the concept of taqwa (piety), which provides both a subjective and objective state of mind simultaneously. My ongoing intellectual and philosophical journey introduces the idea of science and philosophy from an Islamic perspective and attempts to show how such a perspective is possible. Finally, the next stage I reached outlines a theory of knowledge based on previous discussions. In the sixth and final step, the outlines of an Islamic worldview based on the concept of knowledge are drawn. In fact, such a worldview is only possible on the basis of this concept (i.e., the concept of “ilm” – knowledge). Because it can be easily said that Islamic civilization was born upon this concept, expressed by the doctrinal term of the Holy Quran.
What kind of work are you carrying out in Turkey and around the world regarding the science of philosophy?
In my doctoral thesis, published in English, I compared the concepts of being in Sadra and Heidegger. The work consists of four chapters, apart from the Introduction and Conclusion. The Introduction provides general information about both philosophers and a general overview of the subject. The reason why Heidegger and Sadra were chosen for the subject of being is explained. According to this, Heidegger is the only philosopher among contemporary Existentialists who wanted to develop an ontology philosophically. Sadra, on the other hand, aimed to do this in Islamic philosophy. In this respect, comparing the two would be interesting. However, there is a problem in this comparison; since both philosophers belong to different traditions, what method should be followed in the comparison to reveal whether the similarities are merely apparent.
In the First Chapter, this method is defined as the “parallel interpretation method” and its details are developed. According to the interpretative method of parallelism, similar views of two philosophers from different traditions may not pursue the same aim and meaning. In this case, we should call the views of both philosophers parallel, not similar. According to this theory, parallel views are similar views that cannot be placed in the same aim and position. In the subsequent chapters, the similar and parallel views of Sadra and Heidegger are presented.
In the Second Chapter, titled “The Problematic of Being,” the concept of being in Heidegger and Sadra is examined. In the meantime, the solutions offered by both philosophers to many problems such as being-essence, definition of being, existence, modes of being, Heidegger's phenomenological method, Sadra's metaphysical method, and the concept of existence have been examined. The parallel interpretation method was first applied in this section, and the similarities and parallelisms between them were demonstrated. In summary, similar aspects are identified as issues such as the indefinability of being, the precedence of being over essence, and the existence of modes of being. Parallel issues are determined as the human being constituting the fundamental dimension of being. The reason for this has been explained as stemming from Heidegger's search for the existential dimension of being (especially human existence-Dasein), and Sadra's interpretation of being in the direction of establishing cosmology. Thus, Heidegger's doctrine of being has been characterized as “anthropomorphic”; while Sadra's has been characterized as “cosmological”.
In the Third Chapter, it is investigated how being can be in motion according to its modes. Thus, it has been identified as an important similarity that in both Sadra and Heidegger, being is understood as an activity. Since the understanding of being as an activity is an important new development in the history of philosophy, this understanding has been called the activity-oriented concept of being. While the movement related to the modes of being gives rise to a cosmological hierarchy in Sadra; in Heidegger, it displays the existential level of human beings. A parallel aspect of both philosophers is their identification of three modes in being: In Sadra, these are the modes of 1. potentiality (quwwa), 2. multiplicity (kathrah), 3. unity (tawhid); while in Heidegger, they are the modes of 1. self, 2. actuality, and 3. possibility. Within these topics, the theories of time and reality of both philosophers, which also present an important parallelism, have been examined.
The fourth chapter examined the direction in which they completely diverge
In the Fourth Chapter, titled “The Existential Characterization,” the aspect where both philosophers completely diverge has been examined. This aspect has been identified as “hermeneutic of being” in Heidegger and “tashkik al-wujud” (gradation of being) in Sadra. Since tashkik expresses that being has a principle of indeterminacy, due to this indeterminacy, it states that being can manifest at every level of existence. Hermeneutics, on the other hand, states that being must be continuously interpreted within human existence. This is why Heidegger's doctrine of being has been characterized as “anthropomorphic”; while Sadra's has been characterized as “cosmological”. Within the framework of these explanations, aspects where Heidegger diverges from Sadra, such as his theory of interpretation, understanding of truth and existence, and concept of temporality and history, which are related to his doctrine of being, have been clarified. On the other hand, aspects where Sadra diverges from Heidegger, such as tashkik al-wujud (gradation of being), existential motion, attaining God, and intuitive method, which are also closely related to his doctrine of being, have been successfully interpreted and clarified.
Finally, in the Conclusion Chapter, the topics where Sadra and Heidegger diverge, their similar and parallel views, have been summarized under seven headings: 1. Bringing the problem of being to the forefront; 2. Heidegger's ontological distinction, Sadra's cosmological or ontological method; 3. Ontology, anthropology distinction; 4. Existential truth and structural concepts of being; 5. Being, knowledge, and truth; 6. Being and essence; 7. Existential motion.
Is Islamic science possible?
In my other works, a topic widely discussed today and closely related to the philosophy of science, namely the question of whether Islamic science is possible, has been addressed. By examining the concept of “Islamicity,” this term has been defined within the understanding of a worldview.
In my English article, “The Doctrine of Contradiction in the Hegelian Dialectic,” published in İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi (Journal of Human Sciences), O.D.T.Ü., 2 (1985), the principle of contradiction is examined from a different perspective, and some significant criticisms are leveled against Hegel, arguing that the concept of contradiction holds an important place in Hegelian Dialectic. It is argued that some other important doctrines of Hegel, such as idealism and identity-in-difference, are based on the principle of contradiction, and these topics are also discussed and interpreted. In addition, the views of some important critics of Hegel, such as Popper, are also examined. Ultimately, the principle of contradiction is rejected with original criticisms. Thus, it is argued that Hegel's Dialectic would also collapse.
In addition, in my work examining Nasiruddin Tusi's doctrine of being, the views of some important philosophers preceding Tusi, such as Aristotle, Ibn Sina, and Farabi, are first summarized. Then, Tusi's theory of being is successfully presented within the framework of important issues such as the indefinability of being, the principles of being, and the relations between being and quiddity (essence). From this, it is understood that Tusi based his work on previous philosophers.
Again, in one of my articles, “Sadreddin Şirazî's Theory of Motion” has been examined. The idea that substance would not change was accepted as a general truth in philosophy, almost without question, since Aristotle. This idea is based on the assumption that in every change, something unchanging must exist. Otherwise, if everything changes, nothing can preserve its identity. Sadra is the first philosopher to argue for the variability of substance. Indeed, according to him, change exists because substance itself undertakes the change. To defend this view, Sadra developed his theory called tashkīk al-wujūd (the gradation of being). According to this, being possesses the characteristic of tashkīk. Therefore, in every kind of change and motion, being can assume every contradictory characteristic. According to Sadra, it is also demonstrated that being can, in a way, decrease and increase. Subsequently, Sadra's understanding of motion, also called motion in substance, has been discussed with an original interpretation.
In one of my works titled “Theories of Existence,” it analyzes the history of ontology and argues for the precedence of certain ontological problems. However, the author provides important clues regarding the question of 'why' being more important and thus more prior than the question of 'what': The question of 'why' is expressed by Heidegger's question, “Why being, rather than nothing?” The question of 'what' is expressed by the question, “What is there?” These two questions, which have continuously occupied the history of ontology, have troubled philosophers for a long time. Many philosophers have been unable to decide which of these two questions is more prior or more important. The reason for this is that both questions are very closely linked to each other.
Addressed the understanding of Islamic Science and Philosophy
Another topic on which my work has focused is “The Islamic Understanding of Science and Philosophy.” My work, which defines science and philosophy activities based on the Islamic worldview as “The Islamic Understanding of Science and Philosophy,” consists of discussing four fundamental questions; first, it summarized what philosophy is understood to be in the history of philosophy in general and investigated whether a new definition of philosophy could be derived from these understandings. Secondly, the same examination was carried out concerning the concept of science. Thirdly, what is understood by Islamicity has been addressed. It has been investigated whether Islamicity means 'Quranicity'. Finally, fourthly, the application of the concepts of science and philosophy to the Islamic worldview within the framework of these understandings of science, philosophy, and Islamicity has been discussed. Thus, it has been argued that every understanding of science and philosophy that can be developed within the framework of the Islamic worldview can be defined as Islamic.
Philosophy of Development, a priority area in development
A different topic I addressed, yet a critical problem for our country, is the philosophy of development. As “Priority Knowledge in Development: Philosophy of Development,” this is an interesting and original research for its attempt to seek a philosophical solution to the problem of development, trying to find a purely theoretical philosophical solution to a technical problem. For this purpose, this article, which also examines development sociology and economic development theories considered relevant to the topic, criticized modernization and dependency development theories and attempted to develop a new development theory which it named “social development theory.” According to the social development theory, true development is not about attempting to measure development with economic-technological parameters by giving the human element its due importance; rather, it is about determining it by the level of civilization the society has reached. From this perspective, true development does not come from prioritizing technology and economy; rather, it comes from science, philosophy, and other social and human sciences that guide society towards civilization. However, advocating this does not mean completely disregarding the functions of economy and technology in development. Of course, economy and technology may have a function in development, but if sufficient progress is made in science, philosophy, and other social and human sciences that lead to civilization, then the necessary progress for development in economy and technology can also be achieved. However, the converse can never be true; that is, if sufficient progress is made in human activities that do not lead to civilization, such as economy and technology, then there can be no progress in science, philosophy, and other social and human sciences that do lead to civilization. Therefore, the conclusion reached by the article is this: while science, philosophy, and other social and human sciences are indispensable prerequisites for technology and economy, since the reverse is not true, science, philosophy, and other social and human sciences are indispensable prerequisites for achieving the level of civilization and, ultimately, development.
Examined the lives and works of Muslim thinkers
Beyond these, I have carried out studies on certain thinkers and philosophers: The life, works, and views of an important Muslim thinker like Fazlur Rahman have been examined, with philosophical evaluations made at various points. This article, which compares the philosophical understandings of Kant and Whitehead, successfully demonstrated that the understanding of philosophy, which it defined as a “system science,” is also found in Kant and Whitehead. The topic was introduced by first examining the different meanings the concept of philosophy has undergone throughout the history of philosophy. Thus, the meaning philosophy acquired during this historical development demonstrates that it is a system science. This study, which also thoroughly explains what is understood by a system, has shown through long quotations from Kant and Whitehead that their understandings of system are also along these lines. In addition, I have a detailed study on the life, thought, and works of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi. Furthermore, I have conducted similar studies on important Muslim thinkers such as Ahmed Avni Konuk, Syed Muhammed Naquib al-Attas, and Ebubekir Efendi (South Africa).
I have also philosophically engaged with important contemporary issues. For example, I can mention the following: “Teaching in a Foreign Language: A Philosophical Evaluation,” the harms that teaching in a foreign language could bring to a culture are discussed from a philosophical perspective.
“Pioneers of Ontological Doctrines in Islamic Philosophy,” the ontological doctrines of important philosophers such as Kindi, Farabī, and Ibn Sina in Islamic philosophy are examined in this article.
“A Concept of Philosophy in the Qur’anic Context,” by examining the different meanings the concept of philosophy has undergone throughout history, a general definition of philosophy has been pursued, and this definition has been scrutinized from the perspective of Islamic philosophy.
“Transcendent Rationality, Ibn Rushd and Kant: A Critical Synthesis,” the problem of rationality in the philosophies of Kant and Ibn Rushd is discussed comparatively.
“The Framework for a History of Islamic Philosophy,” it is discussed within what framework the history of Islamic Philosophy should be approached, and a new framework is proposed as a solution.
“Science, Technology, Development, and the Place of Philosophy in Society” Some social and scientific phenomena, which have become fundamental problems for our country, such as science, technology, and development, are examined and evaluated from a philosophical perspective. In addition, the topic is evaluated philosophically, and it is argued that philosophy contributes to these issues despite being a theoretical science.
“The Problem of Wholeness in Tafsir Methodology,” this research, which at first glance may not seem like a philosophical study, is actually an important philosophical investigation concerning the determination of the method to be followed in interpreting the Qur’an. As is known, today, studies oriented towards interpretation are quite developed. From this perspective, the paper here emerges as an important work from the perspective of the philosophy of interpretation (in a way, 'tafsir').
“The Religion-Philosophy Relationship from the Perspective of Ibn Sina’s Philosophy,” the religion-philosophy relationship in Ibn Sina's philosophy is examined, and the views of this philosopher are evaluated. The main argument put forward is this: Ibn Sina's understanding of both philosophy and religion has, in many respects, become an invalid understanding for today. The fundamental reason for this is the aforementioned philosopher's theory of knowledge. For Ibn Sina based both his understanding of religion and philosophy on his own theory of knowledge. However, his theory of knowledge is now an invalid theory. Within this framework, Ibn Sina's theory of knowledge is summarized, and an attempt is made to show why it has become invalid. The conclusion drawn from this is that, in order to place the religion-philosophy relationship on a more valid foundation, it is now necessary to move beyond Ibn Sina and develop new philosophical theories.
“The Role of Philosophy in Islam: A Qur’anic Perspective” examines whether a concept of philosophy can be developed from a Qur’anic perspective. The author has argued that this is possible and has developed some important ideas in this direction.
“The Problem of Originality in Islamic Philosophy,” in this paper, where the question of whether originality is possible in Islamic philosophy is discussed, it has been argued that originality is possible in Islamic philosophy.
“Philosophy-Culture Relationship,” Does philosophy contribute to culture or not? This paper, seeking an answer to this question, argued that philosophy contributes to culture and tried to demonstrate what these contributions are. The conclusions reached are presented in seven points:
1. The environment of philosophy is culture;
2. Every culture has a unique philosophical activity;
3. Every philosophy bears the traces of the environment in which it was formed;
4. Philosophy, however, is by its very nature a universal human activity;
5. The intersection of philosophy and culture is language;
6. The area where philosophy and culture diverge is logic;
7. It is philosophy that systematizes the worldview in the cultural environment.